Updates on Myopia : : A Clinical Perspective.

• Author: Ang, Marcus.
• TeilnehmendeR: Wong, Tien Y.
• Place / Publishing House: Singapore : : Springer Singapore Pte. Limited,, 2019.; ©2020.
• Year of Publication: 2019
• Edition: 1st ed.
• Language: English
• Physical Description: 1 online resource (310 pages)

Table of Contents

Intro -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- About the Editors -- 1: Introduction and Overview on Myopia: A Clinical Perspective -- 1.1 Global Epidemiology -- 1.2 Pathogenesis of Myopia -- 1.3 Key Environmental Factors on Myopia -- 1.4 Genetics of Myopia -- 1.5 Prevention of the Onset of Myopia -- 1.6 Understanding Pathologic Myopia -- 1.7 Imaging in Myopia -- 1.8 Glaucoma in Myopia -- 1.9 Management of Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization -- 1.10 Management of Myopia-Related Retinal Complications -- 1.10.1 Proposed Adjuncts to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery -- 1.11 Management and Control of Myopia in Children -- References -- 2: Global Epidemiology of Myopia -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Prevalence of Myopia in Children -- 2.2.1 Asian Countries -- 2.2.1.1 East Asian Countries and Singapore -- 2.2.1.2 Rest of Asian Countries -- 2.2.2 Non-Asian Countries -- 2.2.3 Urban and Rural Areas -- 2.3 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Teenagers and Young Adults -- 2.3.1 East Asian Countries -- 2.3.2 Rest of East Asian Countries -- 2.4 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Adults -- 2.4.1 Asian Countries -- 2.4.1.1 East Asian Countries -- 2.4.1.2 Rest of East Asian Countries -- 2.4.2 Non-Asian Countries -- 2.4.3 Generational Gap -- 2.5 The Prevalence of PM -- 2.6 Conclusion -- References -- 3: The Economic and Societal Impact of Myopia and High Myopia -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Economic Impact of Myopia -- 3.3 Secondary Impact of Myopia from Other Eye Diseases and Sight Loss -- 3.4 Quality of Life -- 3.5 Impact of Myopia Treatments on Quality of Life -- 3.6 Summary -- References -- 4: Understanding Myopia: Pathogenesis and Mechanisms -- 4.1 Emmetropization and Normal Ocular Growth in Human Eyes -- 4.2 Ocular Biometric Changes in Human Myopia -- 4.2.1 Cornea -- 4.2.2 Crystalline Lens and Anterior Chamber Depth.

4.2.3 Vitreous Chamber and Axial Length -- 4.2.4 Choroid -- 4.2.5 Sclera -- 4.3 Visual Environment, Emmetropization, and Myopia: Evidence from Animal Models -- 4.3.1 Form-Deprivation Myopia -- 4.3.2 Lens Defocus Ametropias -- 4.3.3 Comparing Form-Deprivation and Lens Defocus -- 4.4 Other Visual Cues for Emmetropization -- 4.4.1 Retinal Physiology -- 4.4.2 Aberrations -- 4.4.3 Accommodation -- 4.4.4 Circadian Rhythms -- 4.5 Effects of Key Environmental Factors on Myopia -- 4.5.1 Near Work and Education -- 4.5.2 Urbanization -- 4.5.3 Light Exposure -- 4.6 Conclusion -- References -- 5: The Genetics of Myopia -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Heritability -- 5.3 Syndromic Myopia -- 5.4 Linkage Studies -- 5.5 Candidate Gene Studies -- 5.6 Genome-Wide Association Studies -- 5.7 Pathway Analysis Approaches -- 5.8 Next Generation Sequencing -- 5.9 Environmental Influences Through Genetics -- 5.10 Epigenetics -- 5.11 Implications for Clinical Management -- 5.12 Concluding Remarks -- References -- 6: Risk Factors for Myopia: Putting Causal Pathways into a Social Context -- 6.1 Key Issues When Studying Risk Factors for Myopia -- 6.1.1 Myopia Is Etiologically Heterogeneous -- 6.1.2 Myopia Is a Developmental Condition -- 6.1.3 Cycloplegia and Definitions of Myopia: Important Methodological Issues -- 6.1.4 Myopia: The Importance of Causal Pathways -- 6.1.5 Statistical Analysis -- 6.2 The Main Risk Factors for "School Myopia": Education and Time Outdoors -- 6.2.1 The Search for Causal Mechanisms for Education -- 6.2.2 Protection by Time Outdoors -- 6.3 Other Possible Risk Factors for Myopia -- 6.3.1 Use of Computers and Smart Phones -- 6.3.2 Sex -- 6.3.3 Ethnicity -- 6.3.4 Parental Myopia -- 6.3.5 Intelligence -- 6.3.6 Urban/Rural Differences -- 6.3.7 Pollution -- 6.3.8 Housing -- 6.3.9 Height -- 6.3.10 Diet.

6.3.11 Sleep -- 6.3.12 Smoking -- 6.3.13 Birth Order -- 6.3.14 Season of Birth -- 6.3.15 Allergic Conjunctivitis: Hay Fever and Kawasaki Disease -- 6.3.16 Febrile Diseases -- 6.3.17 Fertility Treatment -- 6.4 Popular Beliefs About the Causes of Myopia -- 6.5 Comparing Genetic and Environmental Effects -- 6.6 Conclusions -- References -- 7: Prevention of Myopia Onset -- 7.1 Introduction -- 7.2 Onset of Myopia -- 7.3 Increased Time Outdoors as an Intervention -- 7.4 Reduced Near Work Intensity as an Intervention -- 7.5 Optical Interventions -- 7.6 Eye Exercises of Acupoints -- 7.7 Future Prospects -- References -- 8: Clinical Management and Control of Myopia in Children -- 8.1 Introduction -- 8.2 Near Activity and Accommodation -- 8.2.1 Bifocal and Progressive Addition Spectacles -- 8.2.2 Atropine -- 8.3 Peripheral Defocus -- 8.3.1 Peripheral Myopic Defocus Glasses -- 8.3.2 Bifocal or Dual-Focus Contact Lenses -- 8.3.3 Orthokeratology -- 8.4 Time Spent Outdoors -- 8.4.1 Environmental Interventions -- 8.4.2 Higher Light Intensities and Dopamine -- 8.5 Inheritance and Genetics of Myopia -- 8.6 Application to Clinical Practice -- 8.7 Conclusion -- References -- 9: Understanding Pathologic Myopia -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Definition of Pathologic Myopia -- 9.3 Posterior Staphyloma -- 9.3.1 Definition of Staphyloma by Spaide (Fig. 9.1) -- 9.3.2 Detection of Posterior Staphyloma -- 9.3.3 Classification (Ohno-Matsui's Modified Classification, Fig. 9.3) -- 9.4 Fundus Complications of Pathologic Myopia -- 9.4.1 Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy (META-PM Study, Table 9.1) -- 9.4.2 Diffuse Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 2) -- 9.4.3 Patchy Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 3) -- 9.4.4 Lacquer Cracks (Plus Sign) -- 9.4.5 Myopic CNV and CNV-Related Macular Atrophy -- 9.5 Myopic Macular Retinoschisis.

9.6 Dome-Shaped Macula (DSM) -- References -- 10: Imaging in Myopia -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Disease Characteristics of Myopia -- 10.3 Key Structures Altered in Myopia and Pathological Myopia -- 10.3.1 Sclera and Collagen -- 10.3.2 Choroidal Changes -- 10.3.3 Bruch's Membrane and Retinal Pigment Epithelium Changes -- 10.4 Existing Imaging Modalities to Evaluate the Myopic Eye -- 10.4.1 Optical Coherence Tomography -- 10.4.2 Ultrasound -- 10.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging -- 10.5 Challenges in Imaging of the Myopic Eye -- 10.5.1 Interaction Between Low- and High-Order Aberrations -- 10.5.2 Challenges in Imaging the Anterior Segment -- 10.5.3 Challenges in Imaging the Retina -- 10.5.4 Challenges in Imaging the Choroid and Sclera -- 10.5.5 Challenges in Imaging the Optic Nerve -- 10.6 Future Developments -- References -- 11: Glaucoma in High Myopia -- 11.1 Introduction -- 11.2 Anatomy of the Optic Nerve Head in High Myopia -- 11.3 Increased Prevalence of Glaucoma in High Myopia and Associated Factors -- 11.4 Potential Reasons for the Association Between Glaucoma and High Myopia -- 11.5 Intraocular Pressure and Glaucoma in High Myopia -- 11.6 Therapy of Glaucoma in High Myopia -- References -- 12: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Retinal Complications -- 12.1 Introduction -- 12.2 Surgical Procedures -- 12.2.1 Pars Plana Vitrectomy -- 12.2.1.1 Microincision Vitrectomy Surgery -- 12.2.1.2 Induction of Posterior Vitreous Detachment -- 12.2.1.3 Epiretinal Membrane Peeling -- 12.2.1.4 Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling -- Full-Thickness Macular Hole -- Myopic Foveoschisis -- 12.2.1.5 Gas Tamponade -- 12.2.2 Additional Measures (Adjuncts) to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery -- 12.2.2.1 Endotamponade -- 12.2.2.2 Inverted Internal Limiting Membrane Flap.

12.2.2.3 Autologous Internal Limiting Membrane Transplantation -- 12.2.2.4 Autologous Blood -- 12.2.2.5 Lens Capsular Flap Transplantation -- 12.2.2.6 Macular Buckle -- 12.2.2.7 Autologous Neurosensory Retinal Transplantation -- 12.3 Conclusion -- References -- 13: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Myopic CNV -- 13.1 Disease Overview -- 13.2 Incidence and Prevalence -- 13.3 Natural History -- 13.4 Risk Factors -- 13.5 Pathogenesis -- 13.6 Diagnosis and Monitoring -- 13.7 Differential Diagnosis -- 13.7.1 Macular Hemorrhage Secondary to Lacquer Cracks (Fig. 13.2) -- 13.7.2 Inflammatory CNV -- 13.7.3 Dome-Shaped Maculopathy with Serous Detachment -- 13.8 Management -- 13.8.1 Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Drugs -- 13.9 Ranibizumab -- 13.10 Aflibercept -- 13.11 Bevacizumab -- 13.12 Conbercept -- 13.13 Factors Related to Treatment Outcomes -- 13.14 Recurrence -- 13.15 Treatment Regimen and Follow-Up -- 13.16 Long-Term Outcomes -- 13.17 Conclusions -- References -- 14: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control -- 14.1 Introduction -- 14.2 Spectacle Lenses -- 14.2.1 Under-Correction of Myopia -- 14.2.2 Bifocal or Multifocal Spectacles -- 14.3 Contact Lenses -- 14.3.1 Rigid Gas Permeable Contact Lenses -- 14.3.2 Orthokeratology -- 14.3.3 Soft Bifocal and Multifocal Contact Lenses -- 14.4 Others: Outdoor Activities and Violet Light Transmitting Lenses -- 14.5 Comparison of the Effectiveness on Myopia Control by Different Optical Interventions -- 14.6 Conclusions -- References -- Correction to: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control -- Correction to: M. Ang, T. Y. Wong (eds.), Updates on Myopia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8491-2_14.