Copper shaft-hole axes and early metallurgy in south-eastern Europe : : an integrated approach / / Julia Heeb.
Although the copper axes with central shaft-hole from south-eastern Europe have a long history of research, they have not been studied on a transnational basis since the 1960s. What has also been missing, is trying to use as many methods as possible to better understand their production, use and con...
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Superior document: | Archaeopress archaeology |
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Place / Publishing House: | Oxford : : Archaeopress,, [2014] ©2014 |
Year of Publication: | 2014 |
Edition: | 1st ed. |
Language: | English |
Series: | Archaeopress archaeology.
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Physical Description: | 1 online resource (302 pages) :; illustrations. |
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100 | 1 | |a Heeb, Julia, |e author. | |
245 | 1 | 0 | |a Copper shaft-hole axes and early metallurgy in south-eastern Europe : |b an integrated approach / |c Julia Heeb. |
250 | |a 1st ed. | ||
264 | 1 | |a Oxford : |b Archaeopress, |c [2014] | |
264 | 4 | |c ©2014 | |
300 | |a 1 online resource (302 pages) : |b illustrations. | ||
336 | |a text |b txt |2 rdacontent | ||
337 | |a computer |b c |2 rdamedia | ||
338 | |a online resource |b cr |2 rdacarrier | ||
490 | 1 | |a Archaeopress archaeology | |
588 | |a Description based on print version record. | ||
520 | |a Although the copper axes with central shaft-hole from south-eastern Europe have a long history of research, they have not been studied on a transnational basis since the 1960s. What has also been missing, is trying to use as many methods as possible to better understand their production, use and context. | ||
505 | 0 | |a COVER -- Title -- Copyright page -- Table of Contents -- Acknowledgements -- Introduction -- 1.1 The invention of metallurgy in the Old World -- 1.2 The copper axes with central shaft-hole -- 2 Methodology -- 2.1 Background -- 2.2 Terminology -- 2.3 The collection of data -- 2.4 Experiments -- 2.5 Metallography -- 2.6 Typology -- 2.7 Database/GIS -- 2.8 Summary and conclusion -- 3 Theoretical Perspectives -- 3.1 Social technologies -- 3.2 Overcoming dichotomies -- 3.3 Change, invention and innovation -- 3.4 Conclusion -- 4 Context and Background of the Copper Hammer-Axes and Axe-Adzes from South-Eastern Europe -- 4.1 Climate and topography -- Fig. 1: Physical map of the study area (source: Author) -- 4.2 Vegetation, plants, animals and natural resources of the Copper Age in south-eastern Europe -- Fig. 2: The seven regions defined using the topography as well as the archaeological groups (thanks go to M. Kacner) -- 4.3 Copper Age groups of south-eastern Europe - where, when and how they lived and died -- Fig. 3:Simplified summary of the chronology of the cultural groups in south-eastern Europe between 6000 and 3000 cal BC (source: Author) -- 4.4 Summary and conclusion -- 5 History of Research -- 5.1 The 'discovery' of the Copper Age -- 5.2 The origin and meaning of the copper axes -- 5.3 Typology, production and provenance -- 5.4 The creation of catalogues and scientific analysis -- Fig. 4: The different metal groups according to the SAM project (source: Junghans et al. 1968a, p. 2, Fig. 1) -- 5.5 Summary -- 6 Copper Age Metallurgy and Shaft-Hole Axes from South-Eastern Europe - Evidence, Problems and Potential -- 6.1 Ore deposits and Copper Age mines -- 6.2 Smelting -- 6.3 The production and use of metal artefacts -- Fig. 5: Conical vessel from Belovode, which was interpreted as a 'furnace chimney' (source: Radivojević 2007, p. 40, Fig. 29). | |
505 | 8 | |a Fig. 6: A hammer-axe and an axe-adze (source: Author) -- Fig. 7: Number and proportion of different axe forms (source: Author) -- Fig. 8: The spatial distribution of axe-adzes (source: Author) -- Fig. 9: The spatial distribution of hammer-axes (source: Author) -- Fig. 10: Two tuyères, described as phalli in the original publication (4, 6), a crucible (7) and an unidentified clay object (5) (source: Cucoş 1999, Fig. 67) -- Fig. 11: A mould for an axe-adze from Tepe Ghabristan, Iran (source: Boroffka 2009, p. 253, Fig. 6) -- Fig. 12: Drawing of the re-discovered axe 'blank' from the Museum für Vor-und Frühgeschichte Berlin (drawing: D. Greinert) -- Fig. 13: Elongated grain boundaries along the shaft-hole (source: Pittioni 1957, Fig. 15) -- Fig. 14: A fragmented axe-adze with potential traces of a chisel on the shaft-hole walls (source: Author) -- Fig. 15: Coghlan's proposed method of copper axe production (source: Coghlan 1961, Fig. 14) -- 6.4 Conclusion -- 7 The Experiments -- 7.1 Experimental Archaeology - history, definition and scope -- 7.2 Actualistic outdoor casting -- Fig. 16: The finished furnace, tuyère, pipes and bellow (source: Author) -- Fig. 17: The partly filled mould after casting session 1 (source: Author) -- Fig. 18: The cast from session 1 (source: Author) -- Fig. 19: The partly vitrified tuyère (source: Author) -- Fig. 20: The cast from session 2 (source: Author) -- 7.3 Shaft-hole experiments -- Fig. 21: The cast from session 3 (source: Author) -- Fig. 22: The gas fired furnace (source: Author) -- Fig. 23: Sand moulds for the clay core series -- Fig. 24: The bow drill being used on one of the copper axe blanks (source: Author) -- 7.4 Macromorphological results and observations -- Fig. 25: Attempt at drilling the shaft-hole using a wooden drill point in an electric drill (source: Author). | |
505 | 8 | |a Fig. 26: The different materials used as drill points. A: sedimentary rock, B: igneous rock, C: antler, D: wood, E: copper (source: Author) -- Fig. 27: Experimentally cast axe from the clay core series (source: Author) -- Fig. 28: Archaeological axe of the Jászladány type (source: Author) -- 7.5 Summary and conclusion -- Fig. 29: An experimental axe from the clay core series (A and D) and an archaeological axe of the Pločnik type (B and C) (source: Author) -- Fig. 30: An experimental axe from the punching series (B and C) and an archaeological axe of the Szendrő type (A and D) (source: Author) -- 8 Metallography -- 8.1 Actualistic outdoor casts -- Fig. 31: The processes influencing the microstructure of metals -- Fig. 32: The object cast in session I with the two samples taken for metallographic analysis from the cutting edge (sample 1) and the side (sample 2) (source: Author) -- Fig. 33: Micrographs of the three outdoor casts before etching A-casting session I, B-casting session II and C-casting session III (source: Author) -- Fig. 34: Micrographs of the three outdoor casts after etching A-casting session I, B-casting session II and C-casting session III (source: Author) -- 8.2 Shaft-hole experiment -- Fig. 35: The three samples from the shaft-hole experiment, which were punched and water quenched. (A-PWQ1, B-PWQ2, C-PWQ3) (source: Author) -- Fig. 36: The top surface of unetched sample 22 (CCWQ3) (source: Author) -- Fig. 37: Sections along the shaft-hole of the three air cooled samples cast around a clay core (source: Author) -- Fig. 38: Sections along the shaft-hole of the three water quenched samples cast around a clay core (source: Author) -- Fig. 39: Sections along the shaft-hole of the three air cooled samples with punched shaft-holes (source: Author) -- Fig. 41: Sections along the 'shaft-hole' of the drilled sample (source: Author). | |
505 | 8 | |a Fig. 40: Sections along the shaft-hole of the three water quenched samples with punched shaft-holes (source: Author) -- 8.3 Archaeological axe -- Fig. 42: The deformation of the as cast structure near the top end of the shaft-hole (A) and the lack of deformation near the bottom end (B) (source: Author) -- Fig. 43: The deformation of the as cast structure near the top of the outer surface (A) and the lack of deformation near the bottom of the outer surface (B) (source: Author) -- Fig. 44: A fragment along the top of the shaft-hole (source: Author) -- Fig. 45: The outer surface of the sample where there is a high copper oxide concentration (source: Author) -- 8.4 The results in their archaeological context -- Fig. 47: Strain lines near the lower half of the outer surface (source: Author) -- Fig. 46: The shaft-hole (A) as well as the outer surface of the sample (B) (source: Author) -- Fig. 48: Oxide enrichment of two archaeological axes (A and C) and one experimental one (B) (source: A-B Authors and C Coghlan 1961, p. 65, Fig. 9) -- 8.5 Summary and conclusion -- Fig. 49: An old micrograph of a shaft-hole surface of an axe-adze (source: Coghlan 1961, p.62, Fig. 6) -- 9 A New Typology for the Copper Hammer-Axes and Axe-Adzes -- 9.1 Previous typologies -- 9.2 The new typology -- Fig. 50: The typology as devised by Schubert (source: Schubert 1965, p. 276, Fig. 1) -- 9.3 Conclusion -- 10 Patterns and Trends in the Copper Axe Assemblage -- 10.1 Distribution and Context -- Fig. 51: The distribution of all Copper Age hammer-axes and axe-adzes with known findspots (source: Author) -- Fig. 52: The main distribution area of the copper axes from south-eastern Europe (source: Author) -- Fig. 53: The proportion of different axe groups, which occur inside and outside a 1km buffer zone around the rivers (source: Author). | |
505 | 8 | |a Fig. 54: The proportion of axes occurring within different distances of the rivers (source: Author) -- Fig. 55: The proportion of axes coming from secure, possible and no contexts (source: Author) -- Fig. 56: The number of axes coming from different contexts (source: Author) -- Fig. 57: The proportion of hammer-axes and axe-adzes coming from different contexts (source: Author) -- Fig. 58: Axe-adzes and hammer-axes from three different contexts (source: Author) -- 10.2 Composition -- Fig. 59: The vast majority of axes fall into cluster 2 (Data: Krause 2003, Graph: Author) -- Fig. 60: The number of hammer-axe and axe-adzes in each relevant cluster. The clusters are based on the level of 34 clusters obtained from the complete dataset by Pernicka -- Fig. 61: The distribution of the relevant clusters out of the 34 clusters based on the complete dataset (Data: Krause 2003, Map: Author) -- Fig. 62: The Europe-wide distribution of all copper objects falling into cluster 2 -- Fig. 63: The percentages of axes coming from the relevant level 40 clusters -- 10.3 Dimensions -- Fig. 64: Distribution of length values for the hammer-axes and axe-adzes (source: Author) -- Fig. 65: The weight and length values for the hammer-axes and axe-adzes (thanks go to S. Suhrbier) -- Fig. 67: The distribution of Jászladány axes by weight (source: Author) -- Fig. 66: The weight and length values for the different axe types (thanks go to S. Suhrbier) -- 10.4 Axe marks -- Fig. 68: Percentage of hammer-axes and axe-adzes with and without marks (source: Author) -- Fig. 69: Comparing the different styles of markings for Jászladány axe-adzes and Székely-Nádudvar hammer-axes in percentages of the total number of marked axes of both types (source: Author) -- Fig. 70: The percentages of axe types marked with two circles, one on each side of the shaft-hole (code 2a) (source: Author). | |
505 | 8 | |a Fig. 71: A Neolithic stone axe belonging to the Salzmünder group from the Museum für Vorgeschichte in Halle, Germany (source: Author). | |
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