Metallurgical production in northern Eurasia in the Bronze Age / / Stanislav Grigoriev.

• VerfasserIn: Grigorʹev, S. A.,
• Place / Publishing House: Oxford, England : : Archaeopress Publishing Limited,, [2015]; ©2015
• Year of Publication: 2015
• Language: English
• Physical Description: 1 online resource (831 pages)

Copper is the first metal to play a large part in human history. This work is devoted to the history of metallurgical production in Northern Eurasia during the Bronze Age, based on experiments carried out by the author and analyses of ancient slag, ore and metal.

Table of Contents

Title -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- List of Figures -- Bookmark 435 -- Introduction -- Tab. 0-1. Melting points of some slag minerals. -- Tab. 0-2. Relative viscosity calculated for ores of different chemical compositions. -- Tab. 0-3. Viscosity calculated for slags of different chemical compositions. -- _GoBack -- Tab. 0-4. Coefficients of basicity and acidity used for the classification of slag. -- Tab. 0-5. Quantity of analyses of ore and slag used for calculations of regularities of the trace-elements transition. -- _GoBack -- _GoBack -- Tab. 0-6. Coefficients of trace-elements transition from ore to slag. Statistically doubtful trace-elements are marked out with bold. -- Tab. 0-7. Coefficients of trace-elements transition from ore (settlement of Ilyaska). -- Fig. 0-8. Diagram of correlation of lead isotopes (after Gale and Stos-Gale, 2002). -- Chapter 1. Experiments with Ancient Copper Smelting Technologies -- Fig. 1-I. Experimental works: 1 - Large pieces of birch charcoal allow air to circulate freely in the furnace. 2 - Smelting bowl filled with oxidized ore. 3 - The firing of tuyeres and crucibles in the open fire. 4 - Tuyere after its use. It is well visi -- Fig. 1-II. Experimental works: 1 - Heaving of the clay lining on the bottom in the process of drying. Therefore in the process of drying it was necessary to seal the surface. 2 - Dismantling of the furnace. The walls are fired to red color on considerab -- Fig. 1-III. Experimental works: 1 - Furnace and smelting bowl after operation. The stick shows the direction of blowing from the tuyere. The red color around the tuyere demonstrates the area of the oxidizing conditions. The black walls show the area of.

Fig. 1-IV. Experimental works: 1 - Smelting of oxidized ores is carried out almost without smoke and flame. Color of the charcoal makes possible to distinguish areas with different temperatures. Thus, under the upper layer of charcoal there is an area o -- Fig. 1-V. Experimental works: 1 - Microstructure of slag of experimental smelting 5. Length of the photo is 0.54 mm. Delafossite needles, dendrites of cuprite (cherry-colored) and octahedral of magnetite in glass matrix. 2 - Microstructure of slag of ex -- Fig. 1-2. Furnace connected to a well. In such furnaces the air circulates along the walls around the interior, uniformly warming the furnace, and the air from bellows goes to its center. Then the air leaves the furnace through a flue situated near the -- Tab. 1-1. Bulk chemical analyses of sand, clay, lining, ore and slag of experimental works (weight %). The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition. -- _GoBack -- _GoBack -- Tab. 1-3. Bulk chemical analyses of charcoal and ashes of experimental works (weight %). The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition. -- Tab. 1-4. Emission spectral analyses of charcoal and ashes of experimental works (%).The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition (spectrograph ISP-30). -- _GoBack -- Tab. 1-5. Emission spectral analyses of components and products of experimental works (%).The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition (spectrograph ISP-30). -- _GoBack -- Tab. 1-6. Bulk chemical analyses of ore (before roasting) and slag of experimental works (weight %). The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition. -- _GoBack.

Tab. 1-7. Coefficients of basicity of slag and ore of experimental works. -- Chapter 2. Production in the Eneolithic, Early and Middle Bronze Age -- _GoBack -- Tab. 2-1. Emission spectral analyses of slag from the settlement of Arbashevskii Linozavod (%). The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition (spectrograph ISP-30). -- Fig. 2-2. Furnace of the Vera Island. In the foreground a smelting pit from which the pressure-blowing channel goes to the south. On the right a flue plate with the cracked surface ended in the south with the basis of its vertical part. -- Fig. 2-3. Plan and cross-sections of the furnace of the Vera Island. Dark grey color - plates of the flue, light grey color - virgin rock, white color to the right of the flue - depressions of the pressure-blowing channel and smelting pit. -- Fig. 2-4. Furnace of the Vera Island. Small plate of a triangular form at the end of the horizontal part of the flue. -- Fig. 2-5. Settlement of the Vera Island 4: 1 - ceramic scoop -- 2,3 - casting moulds. -- Fig. 2-6. Settlement of the Vera Island 4, stone tools for mining and metallurgy: 1-6 - hammers -- 7-9 - abrasive plates -- 10,11 - anvils. -- Fig. 2-7. Eneolithic slag from the Urals: 1 - sample 2203, Bannoe-23, slag -- 2 - sample 2204, Bannoe-1, copper -- 3 - sample 2205, Bannoe-1, fragment of slagged ceramics -- 4 - sample 2207, Putilovskaya Zaimka, fragment of slagged crucible -- 5 - sample 2210, -- Fig. 2-8. 1 - Vera Island 4, sample 2206, copper prills in the ceramic mass -- 2 - Bannoe-23, vesicular structure of sample 2203, patina crust (grey) on the surface, iron (white) -- 3 - Bannoe-23, section of the crust, sample 2203: magnetite (light grey) il -- _GoBack.

Tab. 2-9. X-ray fluorescence analysis of the Eneolithic slags (%).The analysis is done in the Institute of Mineralogy (Miass) by Yu.M. Yuminov. -- _GoBack -- Chapter 3. Metallurgical Furnaces of Sintashta Culture -- Fig. 3-1. Map of sites of the Sintashta period ( - Sintashta settlements, x - mines): 1 - Stepnoe, 2 - Chernoryechye III, 3 - Bakhta, 4 - Paris, 5 - Ustye, 6 - Chekotai, 7 - Rodniki, 8 - Isenei, 9 - Kamysty, 10 - Kamenniy Ambar, 11 - Zhurumbay, 12 - Ko -- Fig. 3-2. Pit furnaces (2, 3) and double-sectioned furnaces (1, 4, 5) of the settlement of Semiozerki II. -- Fig. 3-3. Single-sectioned furnaces (2,4,7,10) and those joined the wells (1,3,5,6,8,9) and furnaces with a flue (11-13) from the settlements of Arkaim and Sintashta. -- Tab. 3-4. Distribution of furnaces over settlements. -- Fig. 3-5. Furnaces of the Sintashta culture. -- Fig. 3-6. Scheme of development of metallurgical installations of the Sintashta culture. -- _GoBack -- Chapter 4. Copper Ores of Sintashta and Petrovka Sites in the Transurals -- Tab. 4-1. Emission spectral analyses of ore from the Transural settlements and mines of the Middle Bronze Age and the transition to the Late Bronze Age (%).The analyses have been done in the Chemical laboratory of the Chelyabinsk geological expedition ( -- _GoBack -- _GoBack -- Fig. 4-2. Diagrams of distribution of trace-elements' concentrations in ore (%). -- Fig. 4-3. Correlation of concentrations of Ni-Zn in ore. -- Fig. 4-4. Correlation of concentrations of Pb-Zn in ore of clusters 1-4. -- Fig. 4-5. Correlation of concentrations of Pb-Cr in ore of clusters 1, 3, 5, 6. -- Fig. 4-6. Correlation of concentrations of Ni-Cr in ore. -- Fig. 4-7. Correlation of concentrations of Ni-Co in ore. -- Fig. 4-8. Correlation of concentrations of Pb-Cr in ore of clusters 1, 2.

Fig. 4-9. Correlation of concentrations of Pb-Zn in ore of clusters 4, 7. -- _GoBack -- _GoBack -- Tab. 4-10. Distribution of clusters of ores over sites. -- Tab. 4-11. Correlation between chemical clusters and mineralogy of ores. -- Chapter 5. Mineralogical and Chemical Composition of Sintashta Slag -- _GoBack -- Fig. 5-1. Slag of the settlement of Sintashta: 1-3, 6 - shapeless slag -- 4, 5 - thin slag cakes -- 7-11 - flat slag cakes. -- _GoBack -- Tab. 5-2. Distribution of flat slag cakes and shapeless slag over settlements in the Transurals. -- _GoBack -- Tab. 5-3. Distribution of flat slag cakes and shapeless slag over cultural groups. -- Fig. 5-I. Microstructures of slag, reflected light. 1 - Sintashta. Sample 3. Slag of the 3rd mineralogical group. Quartz grains (dark grey) and a chromite grain (white) in the glass matrix (light grey). 2 - Sintashta. Sample 3. Slag of the 3rd mineralog -- Fig. 5-II. Microstructures of slag, reflected light. 1 - Arkaim. Sample 2. Slag of the 1st mineralogical group. Melting grain of serpentine (dark grey on the right) with inclusions of particles and crystallizing skeletons of magnetite (light inclusions) -- Fig. 5-III. Microstructures of slag, reflected light. 1 - Sintashta. Sample 173. Slag of the 1st mineralogical group. Crystallizing prisms and skeletons of olivine (grey), small octahedral of magnetite (light grey), copper prills with cuprite border, sm -- Fig. 5-IV. Microstructures of slag, reflected light. 1 - Sintashta. Sample 846. Slag of the 1st mineralogical group. Polygonal and prismatic crystals of olivine (grey), grain of chromite (light blue on the left), prill of cuprite (blue and red in the ce -- Fig. 5-V. Microstructures of slag, scanning electron microscope. 1 - Sintashta, sample 3 -- 2-4 - Sintashta, sample 173 -- 5, 6 - Semiozerki II, sample 221.

Fig. 5-VI. Microstructures of slag, scanning electron microscope. 1-3 - Semiozerki II, sample 252.