Adjudicating Attacks Targeting Culture : : Revisiting the Approach under State Responsibility and Individual Criminal Responsibility.

• Superior document: Leiden Studies on the Frontiers of International Law
• Author: Abtahi, Hirad.
• Place / Publishing House: Boston : : BRILL,, 2023.; ©2023.
• Year of Publication: 2023
• Edition: 1st ed.
• Language: English
• Series: Leiden Studies on the Frontiers of International Law
• Physical Description: 1 online resource (396 pages)

Table of Contents

Half Title -- Series Information -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Laudatio PhD -- Preface -- Acknowledgements -- List of Tables -- Abbreviations -- General Introduction: Mapping Attacks Targeting Culture -- 1 Background and Primary Research Question -- 1.1 Treaty Law and Modes of Responsibility: Legal Niches or Anthropological Uncertainty? -- 1.2 Academia: Specialisation or Compartmentalisation? -- 2 Conceptualising Attacks Targeting Culture -- 2.1 Culture as a Metaphorical Triptych -- 2.2 Ways of Attacking Culture: Tangible-Centred or Heritage-Centred? -- 3 Proposed Framework and Tools -- 3.1 Placing Culture in Linguistics and Anthropology -- 3.1.1 Linguistic Heterogeneity: Inter-language and Intra-language Variations -- 3.1.2 Anthropological Heterogeneity: Evolutionism, Holism or Relativism? -- 3.1.3 Common Elements: A Totalising Anthropo-Centred Concept -- 3.2 Placing Culture in a Legal Mould -- 3.2.1 Introduction: Reducing Tangible and Intangible Culture to Law -- 3.2.2 The Tangible-Centred Approach: Tangible Culture Sometimes Linked to Legal Persons -- 3.2.3 The Heritage-Centred Approach: Linking Tangible Culture to Heritage -- 3.2.3.1 Tangible Culture Linked to Anthropical and Natural Heritage -- 3.2.3.2 Tangible and Intangible Culture as Heritage -- 3.2.4 Conclusion: A Legal Concept Defined by Anthropical and Natural Components -- 3.3 Placing Culture in Judicial Proceedings -- 3.3.1 Modes of International Responsibility's Adjudicatory Mechanisms -- 3.3.1.1 State Responsibility -- 3.3.1.2 Individual Criminal Responsibility -- 3.3.2 Culture's Locus Standi before International Adjudicatory Bodies -- 3.3.2.1 The Anthropo-Centred Approach: Natural Persons as Victims of Attacks Targeting Culture -- 3.3.2.2 The Tangible-Centred Approach: Legal Persons' Locus Standi as Victims of Attacks Targeting Cultural Property.

3.3.2.3 Synthesis -- 4 Roadmap -- Part 1 State Responsibility -- Introduction: Attacks Targeting Culture - A Westphalian Foresight? -- Chapter 1 Inter-State Claim Mechanisms -- 1 Introduction: The Subject-Matters of Injury and Terminological Challenges -- 2 Legal Persons: Actual and Prospective Tangible-Centred Approach -- 2.1 Direct Injury to States -- 2.1.1 Introduction -- 2.1.2 Material Injury: Anthropical and Natural Property -- 2.1.3 Moral Injury Suffered by the State as a Result of Injury Caused to It Directly -- 2.2 Indirect Injury to States: Injury to States' Nationals - Legal Persons -- 2.2.1 Introduction -- 2.2.2 Material Damage - Property: Loss, Damage and Expropriation -- 2.2.3 Moral Injury -- 2.3 Synthesis: Westphalian Avant-Gardism Regarding Legal Persons and Cultural Property -- 3 Natural Persons: A Prospective Heritage-Centred Approach? -- 3.1 Direct Injury: Armed Activities and Peacetime -- 3.1.1 Personal (Material and Moral) Injury -- 3.1.2 Material Damage: Property Damage and Confiscation -- 3.2 Indirect Injury: Material and Moral Injury to Third Parties -- 3.3 Synthesis: Westphalian Avant-Gardism Regarding Natural Persons -- 4 Conclusion to Chapter 1 -- Chapter 2 Regional Human Rights Courts -- 1 Introduction: The Subject-Matters of Damage and Terminological Challenges -- 2 Natural Persons: The Heritage-Centred Approach -- 2.1 Natural Persons as Members of the Collective -- 2.1.1 Direct Victims -- 2.1.1.1 Pecuniary Damage: Human Rights Violations Not Directly Related to Cultural Rights -- 2.1.1.2 Non-pecuniary Damage: Human Rights Violations Directly Related to Cultural Rights -- 2.1.2 Indirect Victims: Pecuniary and Non-pecuniary Damage -- 2.1.3 Outcome -- 2.2 The Collective as the Sum of Natural Persons -- 2.2.1 The Collective Regardless of Its Juridical Personality.

2.2.1.1 Scope: Injured Party and Beneficiary of Collective Reparations -- 2.2.1.2 Non-pecuniary Damage: The Disruption of Heritage -- 2.2.1.2.1 Anthropical and Natural Heritage: Communal Lands -- 2.2.1.2.2 Knowledge: Indigenous/Tribal Elders and Women -- 2.2.1.2.3 Ethnicity/Nationality: Religion and Language -- 2.2.2 The Collective with Express Juridical Personality -- 2.2.2.1 A Narrow Scope: The Collective as Injured Party and Beneficiary of Reparations -- 2.2.2.2 Non-pecuniary Damage: Disruption of Heritage - The Collective-Land Symbiosis Breakdown -- 2.2.3 Outcome -- 2.3 Synthesis: A Heritage-Centred Approach Grounded on Damages' Typology and Victims -- 3 Legal Persons: The Tangible-Centred Approach -- 3.1 Victims: Legal Persons as Such -- 3.1.1 Private Entities: From Pecuniary to Non-pecuniary Damage -- 3.1.2 Institutions Dedicated to Religion: Pecuniary and Non-pecuniary Damage -- 3.2 Damage: Legal Persons' Natural Person Members -- 3.3 Synthesis: From Legal Persons to "Living Organisms" -- 4 Conclusion to Chapter 2 -- Conclusion to Part 1: State Responsibility's Groundwork for Individual Criminal Responsibility -- Part 2 Individual Criminal Responsibility -- Introduction: Attacks Targeting Culture - A Tripartite Crime Matter? -- Chapter 3 War Crimes -- 1 Introduction: Crimes Concerned with Tangible Culture Only? -- 2 The Tangible-Centred Approach: IHL and ICL Instruments -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 Direct Protection: Cultural Property as Such -- 2.2.1 IHL-ICL Instruments Listing Tangible Culture's Components -- 2.2.1.1 Culture's Anthropical Components -- 2.2.1.2 Towards Culture's Natural Components? -- 2.2.2 IHL-ICL Instruments Naming Cultural Property -- 2.2.2.1 Direct Reference: The 1954 Hague Convention and Its 1999 Protocol -- 2.2.2.2 Indirect Reference: The 1977 Additional Protocols and the ECCC Law -- 2.2.3 Outcome.

2.3 Indirect Protection of Culture's Tangible as Movable and Immovable of a Civilian Character -- 2.3.1 Attack, Bombardment, Destruction, and Devastation -- 2.3.1.1 Tangible Culture as Part of the Collective: Urban Ensembles -- 2.3.1.2 Tangible Culture as Such: Property and Objects -- 2.3.2 Seizure-Appropriation and Pillage-Plunder -- 2.3.2.1 Seizure and Appropriation -- 2.3.2.2 Pillage and Plunder -- 2.3.3 Outcome -- 2.4 Synthesis: Direct Protection as Lex Specialis to Indirect Protection -- 3 Towards a Heritage-Centred Approach: Dubrovnik and Timbuktu -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 IHL-ICL Intersecting with Peacetime Instruments -- 3.2.1 The Sites and the 1972 World Heritage Convention -- 3.2.1.1 Dubrovnik: Culture's Secular and Religious Tangibles -- 3.2.1.2 Timbuktu: Culture's Religious Tangible -- 3.2.2 Choice of Charges against the Accused -- 3.2.2.1 Within War Crimes Provisions -- 3.2.2.2 Beyond War Crimes Provisions -- 3.3 The Collective and Its Anthropical Environment -- 3.3.1 Introduction -- 3.3.2 The Local Population -- 3.3.2.1 Victims -- 3.3.2.2 Harm and Reparations -- 3.3.2.2.1 Material Harm: Individual and Collective Reparations -- 3.3.2.2.2 Moral Harm: Disruption of Culture -- 3.3.3 The National Population and the International Community -- 3.3.3.1 Victims -- 3.3.3.2 Harm and Reparations -- 3.4 Synthesis: Blurring the Distinction between the Peacetime and Non-peacetime Legal Regimes? -- 4 Conclusion to Chapter 3: Tangible-Centred Means with Heritage-Centred (Intent and) Consequences -- Chapter 4 Crimes against Humanity -- 1 Introduction: Crimes Coined by the Clash of Civilisations -- 2 The Anthropo-centred Approach -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Chapeau Elements: Attacks against a Collective -- 2.2.1 A War Crimes' By-Product Turned into a Human Rights Crime -- 2.2.2 A Path toward Genocide -- 2.2.3 Outcome.

2.3 The Underlying Offences: The Crime of Persecution -- 2.3.1 Mens Rea: A Collective Identity-Based Crime -- 2.3.1.1 The "Lower Genocide" -- 2.3.1.2 The Discriminatory Grounds' Cultural Dimensions: The Case of Gender and Culture -- 2.3.2 Actus Reus: Fundamental (Human) Rights Violations -- 2.3.2.1 The Post-Second World War Trials -- 2.3.2.1.1 The IMT: Mixed Legal and Colloquial Use of the Word "Persecution" -- 2.3.2.1.2 CCL 10: Greiser's Mixed Use of Persecution and Genocide -- 2.3.2.2 The Post-Cold War Trials: The Scope of Fundamental (Human) Rights -- 2.3.2.2.1 Laying the Foundation: The First Twenty Years' Limited Scope -- 2.3.2.2.2 The Case 002/02 and Al Hassan Turning Points: Expanding the Scope -- 2.3.2.2.3 Relationship with Other Inhumane Acts -- 2.3.3 Outcome -- 2.4 Synthesis: Crimes Immersed in Collective Rights Violations -- 3 The Tangible-Centred Approach: The Actus Reus of the Crime of Persecution -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The Post-Second World War Trials -- 3.2.1 Culture's Religious Tangible -- 3.2.2 Culture's Secular Tangible -- 3.2.3 Outcome -- 3.3 The Post-Cold War International Criminal Jurisdictions -- 3.3.1 The ICTY -- 3.3.1.1 The Means of Attacking Tangible Culture: Relationship with War Crimes -- 3.3.1.2 The Aim of Attacking Tangible Culture: "Memory-Cide" and Genocide -- 3.3.2 The ICC -- 3.3.3 Outcome -- 3.4 Synthesis: Heritage-Oriented Attacks Targeting Tangible Culture -- 4 Conclusion to Chapter 4: Fundamental (Cultural) Rights Violations - Between War Crimes and Genocide? -- Chapter 5 Genocide -- 1 Introduction: An Intrinsically Anthropological Crime -- 2 Drafting the Convention -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.2 The Chapeau: Genocide Is Cultural -- 2.2.1 Intent and Motive -- 2.2.1.1 The Secretariat Draft -- 2.2.1.2 The Ad Hoc Committee Draft -- 2.2.1.3 The Sixth Committee -- 2.2.2 Protected Groups.

2.2.2.1 A Cultural Interconnection.